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banking terms

By Victor S. Fischer
  ✍️ CRR Cash Reserve Ratio is the minimum fraction of total deposits of a bank’s customers that banks have to hold as reserves with the central bank. ✍️ SLR Statutory Liquidity Ratio is the ratio of liquid assets to the net demand and time liabilities. ✍️ LAF Liquid Adjustment Facility is a tool to allow banks to borrow money through repurchase agreements. It consists of repo and reverse repo operations. ✍️ MSF Marginal Standing Facility allows scheduled banks to borrow funds overnight from RBI against approved government securities. ✍️ MSS Market Stabilization Scheme is a monetary policy intervention by RBI to withdraw excess liquidity by selling government securities in the economy. ✍️ OMO Open Market Operations refers to the buying and selling of government securities in the open market so as to expand or contract the amount of money in the banking system. ✍️ REPO Repo...
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Vedas and the Upanishads

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The Vedic literature was composed in Sanskrit. To begin with the Vedas were recited and not written. They were taught by oral method. Hence they were called as Sruti (heard) and Smriti (memorized). But later on they were reduced to writing after the invention of scripts.

The major literary and religious works of Vedic Period are the four Vedas and the Upanishads. These works still continue to hold immense authority in the sphere of spiritual and religious literature. The idea and principles of Karma (action) and Moksha (spiritual liberation) are widely accepted by the people belonging to Hindu faith.

Four Vedas

Veda is a sanskrit word. It means “knowledge“. There were four Vedas :

The Rig Veda

The Sama Veda

The Yajur Veda and

The Atharva Veda.



1. The Rig Veda

Collection of hymns

Oldest of all vedas

Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028

Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'.

Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra

II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas

I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas.

The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably added later.

Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'.

Mandala II to VII was created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaj, Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma

2. Samveda

Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda

"Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value.

Has only 75 fundamental hymns

3. The Yajur Veda

Book of sacrifical prayers

Rituals of yajnas

Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu"

Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"- the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice.

Has been compiled in "fourth path"

Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda

Prose text

4. Atharvaveda

Mantras for magic spells

Populate ritualistic system & superstitions

Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community

Collection of 711/731/760 hymns

Not included in 'Trai'

Has been divided in 20 "Kandas"

18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works

Provides freedom from evils spirits.

Oldest text on Indian Medicine.


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By Victor S. Fischer

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