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banking terms

By Victor S. Fischer
  ✍️ CRR Cash Reserve Ratio is the minimum fraction of total deposits of a bank’s customers that banks have to hold as reserves with the central bank. ✍️ SLR Statutory Liquidity Ratio is the ratio of liquid assets to the net demand and time liabilities. ✍️ LAF Liquid Adjustment Facility is a tool to allow banks to borrow money through repurchase agreements. It consists of repo and reverse repo operations. ✍️ MSF Marginal Standing Facility allows scheduled banks to borrow funds overnight from RBI against approved government securities. ✍️ MSS Market Stabilization Scheme is a monetary policy intervention by RBI to withdraw excess liquidity by selling government securities in the economy. ✍️ OMO Open Market Operations refers to the buying and selling of government securities in the open market so as to expand or contract the amount of money in the banking system. ✍️ REPO Repo stands for Repurchase agreement where a seller of a security agrees to buy it back from a buyer at a
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Sangam Age - The Dawn of History in the Deep South

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The Megalithic Background

Megalith graves were encircled by big pieces of stones. They also contained pottery and iron objects buried with the corpse. They are found in the upland regions of Peninsula with concentration in Eastern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu

State formation and rise of civilization

The megalithic people started to reclaim the fertile deltaic lands. The route to the south is called as Dakshinapathawhich became economically important.

Megasthenes knew about Pandyas while Ashokan inscriptions mention about Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras and Satyaputras

Flourishing trade with Roman empire led to the formation of these three states i.e., Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas

Sangam Period

Sangam period is the period in the history of ancient Tamil Nadu spanning from c. 3rd century BC to c. 3rd century AD. It is named after the famous Sangam academies of poets and scholars centred in the city of Madurai.



Three early kingdoms

Kingdom
Capital
Port
Emblem
Famous Ruler
Cheras
Vanji – Modern Kerala
Muzuri and Tondi
Bow
Senguttuvan
Cholas
Uraiyur and Puhar
Kaveripatinam/Puhar. They had an efficient Navy
Tiger
Karikalan
Pandyas
Madurai
Korkai for Pearl Fishing
Fish
Nedunzheriyan
Cheras

They had Palmyra flowers as their Garland

Pugalur inscriptions mention of three generations of Cheras

Senguttuvan introduced Pattni cult or Worship of Kannagi as ideal wife

Cholas

Karikalan built Kallanai (Check dam) against River Kaveri

Pandyas

Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes the socio-economic conditions of the Pandyas

Invasion by Kalbharas led to their decline

These kingdoms had a profitable trade with the Roman empire. They produced Pepper, Ivory, Pearls, Precious stones, Muslin, Silk, Cotton etc. which led to prosperity in their region.

Rise of social classes

Enadi – captains of the army

Vellalas – Rich peasants

Arasar – ruling class

Kadaisiyar – the lowest class

Pariyars – agricultural labourers

Four castes mentioned in Tolkappiyam

Arasar – Ruling class

Anthanar – Brahmanas

Vanigar – People involved in Trade and Commerce

Vellalar – Labourers

Five-fold division of land

Land
Type of land
Chief deity
Chief occupation
Kurunji
Hilly tracts
Murugan
Hunting and honey collection
Mullai
Pastoral
Mayon
Cattle rearing and dealing with dairy products
Marudham
Agricultural
Indira
Agricultural
Neidhal
Coastal
Varunan
Fishing and salt manufacturing
Palai
Desert
Korravai
Robbery
Sangam administration

Avai – the imperial court

Kodimaram – tutelary tree of every ruler

Panchmahasabha
Amaichar – ministers

Senatipathiar – Army chief

Otrar – Spy

Thoodar – Envoy

Purohitar – Priest

Kingdom’s division

Mandalam/Nadu – Province

Ur – town

Perur – Big village

Sitrur – Small village

Sangams

Sangam
Place
Chairman
Surviving texts
1st
Then-Madurai
Agasthiyar
Nil
2nd
Kapadapuram
Agasthiyar and Tolkappiyar
Tolkappiyam
3rd
Madurai
Founder - Mudathirumaran
Nakkirar 
Ettutogai, Pattu Pattu (10 idylls)
Tamil language and Sangam literature

Narrative – Ettutogai and Pattupattu which are called Melkankakku – 18 Major works. They are divided into Agam (love) and Puram (Valour)

Didactive – Pathinenkilkanakku – 18 minor works. They deal with Ethics and Morals.

Thirukkural ­– Written by Thiruvalluvar is a treatise covering various aspects of life.

Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of Tamil literature. It is a work on Tamil Grammar but also provides information on Political and Social conditions of Sangam period

Epics

Silapadhikaram by Elango Adigal

Manimegalai by Sitthalai Sathanar

Valayapathi

Kundalagesi

Sivaga Sinthamani


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